Ball, D. L., & Forzani, F. M. (2009). The work of teaching and the challenge for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(5), 497-511. doi:10.1177/0022487109348479 In this article, the authors argue for making practice the core of teachers’ professional preparation. They set the argument for teaching practice against the contemporary backdrop of a teacher education curriculum that is often centered not on the tasks and activities of teaching but on beliefs and knowledge, on orientations and commitments, and a policy environment preoccupied with recruitment and retention. The authors caution that the bias against detailed professional training that often pervades common views of teaching as idiosyncratic and independently creative impedes the improvement of teachers’ preparation for the work of teaching. They offer examples of what might be involved in teaching practice and conclude with a discussion of challenges of and resources for the enterprise.
Keywords: teacher education, teaching practice, teacher education curriculum, professional education
Buczynski, S. & Hansen, C.B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education.26(3), 599-607
An Inquiry Learning Partnership (ILP) was formed between a university, science center, and two urban school districts to offer 4th-6th grade teachers specific science content and pedagogical techniques intended to integrate inquiry-based instruction in elementary classrooms. Pre/post assessments revealed an increase in teacher content knowledge and modest gains in student science achievement. Teachers transferred knowledge/skills gained in professional development to their classrooms; however, several barriers to implementing inquiry were also identified. These obstacles included limited resources, time constraints, mandated curriculum pacing, language learning, and classroom management issues. Strategies to mitigate these barriers need to be a priority in professional development.
Grossman, P., Wineburg, S., & Woolworth, S. (2001). Toward a theory of teacher community. The Teachers College Record, 103(6), 942–1012. Retrieved fromhttp://openarchive.stanford.edu/handle/10408/75
When developing a professional community of teachers, there is an “essential tension of teacher community (p. TBD see note)” between experiences that strengthen pedagogical experiences such as standards writing, curriculum and assessment design and instruction practice improvement, and those experiences that help foster an educator’s “continuing intellectual development (p. TBD see note)” of subject matter knowledge. The authors contend that the “teacher community must be equally concerned with student learning and with teacher learning (p. TBD see note). Some challenges to forming a collegial professional community stem from the community’s source of creation. Teachers join their school site after being hired by administrators, rather than joining the group organically as the result of shared ideals and beliefs. As a result, professional communities in schools often must face the obstacles of multiple agendas and/or become “pseudocommunities” (p. TBD see note) where there is a false sense of congeniality and may lead to an “illusion of consensus” (p. TBD). When discussions erupt in conflict based on the sparking of intellectual passion, then it can be assumed that “assertive engagement” has been reached. Effective communities also must include an understanding that the collective knowledge is greater than the understanding of any one individual, which is a paradigm shift for teachers who generally spend the majority of their careers as the “expert” in their classroom.
The authors implicitly point out the importance of deeply understanding the particular subject matter constraints, methodology and theoretical and conceptual debates before delving into the development of teacher professional communities.
In conclusion the authors cite the following dimensions of teacher community:
1. “formation of a group identity and the development of norms for interaction” (p. tbd)
2. “differences among participants can be acknowledged and understood” (p. tbd)
3. “teachers come to recognize the interrelationship of teacher and student learning and are able to use their own learning as a resource to delve more deeply into issues of student learning, curriculum, and teaching” (p. tbd)
4. “willingness of its members to assume responsibility for colleagues‟ growth and development” (p. tbd)
Davies, P. & Dunnill, R. (2008). ’Learning Study’ as a model of collaborative practice in initial teacher education. Journal of Education for Teaching 34 (1), 3-16
Hiebert, J., Gallimore, R., & Stigler, J. W. (2002). A knowledge base for the teaching profession: What would it look like and how can we get one? Educational Researcher, 31(5), 3-15. doi:10.3102/0013189X031005003 Case studies demonstrate the ways in which teachers can build upon their own storehouse of practitioner knowledge through reflexive practice. The authors define key characteristics of practitioner knowledge as “linked with practice”, “detailed, concrete and specific”, and “integrated” (p. 6) In order for the practitioner knowledge to become transferrable for use in generalized settings, the knowledge must become public. In order for knowledge to become public, it must be “storeable and shareable” (p. 7) and have a “mechanism for verification and improvement” (p. 8). The authors present an argument for using an adapted United States model of Japanese Lesson study as an instrument for transforming practitioner knowledge into public knowledge.
Hill, H. C., Ball, D. L., & Schilling, S. G. (2008). Unpacking pedagogical content knowledge : Conceptualizing and measuring teachers’ topic-specific knowledge of students. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 39(4), 372-400.
This research suggests the existence of “knowledge of content and students” a subset of pedagogical content knowledge. Beyond simply verifying the existence of this subset of PCK, it also suggests that teachers of mathematics have, “…skills, insights, and wisdom beyond that of other mathematically well- educated adults” (p.395).
Ilieva, V. (2011). Actively seeking change: Mathematics lesson study for the diverse U.S. Schools. Teacher Education and Practice, 24(1), 74-95. Ilieva makes the case for using lesson study as a means for collaboration and authentic professional development in United States schools. However, one difference between implementation in the United States and implementation in Japan is the cultural diversity of United States schools. In order to address the “student sensitive” needs of creating lessons that are appropriate and sensitive to a “linguistically and culturally diverse group” (p. 75),, the author makes the case for the inclusion of a diversity consultant into lesson study groups to play the role of the knowledgeable other commonly found in Japanese Lesson Study. Further research is needed to examine the importance of “experience and level of involvement” (p.91) of the diversity consultant, as well as looking at the effects of lesson study and a diversity specialist as knowledgeable other on student achievement.
Keywords: Japanese Lesson Study, student-sensitive teaching, culturally diverse teaching
Lappan, G. (2000). A vision of learning to teach for the 21st century. School Science and Mathematics. 100(6), 319-326.
This theoretical article cites the need for teachers to have a range of “domains of knowledge” allowing them to teach mathematics regardless of audience (p. 320). Teacher preparation and professional development experiences should not simply examine the pedagogy of teaching mathematics, but should provide teachers with the experience of solving mathematics problems, allowing them to better understand the number play and critical thinking about math that students will need to encounter.
Lewis, C., Perry, R., & Murata, A. (2006). How should research contribute to instructional improvement? The case of lesson study. Educational Researcher, 35(3), 3-14. doi:10.3102/0013189X10393501
The authors propose three areas of necessary research to determine the effectiveness and transferability of lesson study across the United States. The first area of research is creating “a broader knowledge base about lesson study” in order to better understand how lesson study is being used in Japan and the U.S. today (p.10). In addition, the authors cite a need for the “explication of lesson study’s mechanism” so that there is greater understanding of how and why this model of inquiry-based professional development is beneficial practice for educators (p.10). Lastly there is a call for “cycles of design-based research” that will provide and assess the “design features” and provide “actionable artifacts” that will allow for transferability across schools, districts, states and countries (p. 10).
Lewis, C., & Tsuchida, I. (1998). A lesson is like a swiftly flowing river: How research lessons improve Japanese Education. American Educator, 22(4), 12–17; 50–52.
The authors highlight the attractive characteristics of research lessons, particularly that they are “observed by other teachers” (p.12) , “ are collaboratively planned”, “ are focused”, “are recorded” and “are discussed” (p. 14). Beyond the in-school research study(“kenkyuu jugyou” (p.12)), the authors focus on the public research lesson (“koukai kenkyuu jugyou or gakushuu kenkyuu happyoukai”(p.14)). These public research lessons can attract many observers and are designed to make commentary on the national curriculum or issues that require widespread understanding [Note: translated to district-wide curriculum reform in U.S./Teaching Studio context?]. The authors argue that research lessons can transform classroom practice, both by providing new teaching methods, but also by reshaping an educator’s personal “philosophy of teaching” (p. 15). Research lessons can act as a tool for creating understanding about curricular changes and connect individual educators with the “broader goals” for education (p.16). Research lessons can act as a forum for educators to resolve/discuss conflicting educational philosophies or viewpoints, while also serving as a means for driving an individual’s ‘demand for improvement” (p.16). Research lessons have acted as a means for shaping policy at a national level. Finally, research lessons “acknowledge Japanese teachers’ central position in Japanese education. However, there are specific aspects to Japan’s educational context that support research lessons. Specifically, Japan has a lean and shared national curriculum, there is culture of collaboration in Japanese schools, Japan’s value of self-reflection across all aspects of culture, and the lack of the policy see-sawing often seen in U.S. schools.
Shulman, J. (2002). Happy accidents: Cases as opportunities for teacher learning. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. April, 2002. New Orleans, LA.
Shulman, L.S. (1996). Just in case: Reflections on learning from experience. In J. Colbert, P. Desberg, & K. Trimble (Eds.), The case for education: Contemporary approaches for using case methods (pp. 197-217). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Smith, M.S., Bill, V., & Hughes, E.K. (2008). Thinking through a lesson: A key for successfully implementing high-level tasks. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 14(3), 132-138. This article describes and supports the use of TTLP (Thinking Through a Lesson Plan). This lesson planning protocol requires teachers to articulate a mathematical goal, anticipate student responses (see Inoue, 2009), and create a plan for discussion that allows for assessment of student thinking. This protocol is designed to allow cognitively difficult mathematics challenges to take place in the classroom while mitigating concerns over a teachers lack of control over the many pathways to possible solution.
Silver, E. A., Mills, V., Castro, A., & Ghousseini, H. (2006). Blending elements of lesson study with case analysis and discussion: A promising professional development synergy. Monograph Series, 3, 117 This study illustrates the importance of blending methodologies for professional development, rather than adopting one sole methodology. The researchers illustrate the complimentary nature of case study analysis and lesson study methodologies which addresses the shortcomings of both. Through case study analysis, teachers are able to think critically about teaching in general, while through lesson study, they are able to think critically about their own practice. However the lessons learned from both experiences make their learning from the other practice in further professional development experiences more rich.
Keywords: Japanese lesson study, professional development research
Stigler, J. W., & Thompson, B. J. (2009). Thoughts on creating, accumulating, and utilizing shareable knowledge to improve teaching. The Elementary School Journal, 109(5), 442-457. doi:10.1086/596995 Abstract: Many have proposed the creation of a practitioner knowledge base as a foundation for the continu- ous improvement of teaching. In this article, we discuss the promise, and the challenges, involved in the creation and use of such a knowledge base. Webegin by reflecting on the difficulties of chang- ing teaching, a cultural and contextual activity.We then discuss 3 phases of the knowledge-building process—creation, accumulation, and utiliza- tion—describing how each phase is influenced by the cultural nature of teaching, and the role that practitioners might play in each phase. Finally, we discuss implications for teacher education and professional development.
Taylor, E.V. (2011). Supporting children’s mathematical understanding: professional development focused on out-of-school practices. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education DOI 10.1007/s10857-011-9187-7
This study focuses on the importance in guiding teachers to use the out-of-school, informal settings and practices in which children have great familiarity. Teachers are cautioned to avoid focusing on the context as much as focusing on the mathematical practice that is used in the high-familiarity, informal setting. The authors contend that professional development readings should focus on both the framework for developing lessons that use these authentic mathematical practices in context, but also provide educators with very specific examples, rather than simply the abstract conceptual framework.
Keywords: math education, professional development, social context, informal learning
Warren, J. T. (2011). Reflexive teaching: Toward critical autoethnographic practices of/in/on pedagogy. Cultural Studies <-> Critical Methodologies, 11(2), 139-144. doi:10.1177/1532708611401332 Warren makes the case for reflexive pedagogy, specifically with an eye to what a reflexive pedagogy would look like, but also what research around this type of reflexive pedagogy with an aim to improve the quality of engagment and delivery of instruction by teachers (p. 140). Warren calls to importance the process of asking oneself questions about what experiences in the past have led to the educator one is today. In essence, this article suggests that autoethnographies of classroom experiences can be a powerful means for crtical reflexivity.
Wilcox, Sandra K, Schram, P., Lappan, G., & Lanier, P. (1991). The role of a leaning community in changing preservice teachers’ knowledge and beliefs about mathematics education. (pp. 1-30).
In this study, an intervention to preservice teachers that focused on building greater conceptual understanding and using this conceptual understanding to frame their pedagogy yielded teachers that had a better understanding of themselves as mathematical learners. By experiencing a community of learners in which teachers had the opportunity to be mathematical learners, teachers strengthened their self-confidence about mathematics. However, the translation of participating in a community of learners as a teacher to creating a community of learners within the classroom proved to be a greater challenge, with many of these preservice/novice teachers reverting to the more traditonal methodology that they see in their school site. The authors contend that it is necessary to examine how teachers can reap the benefit of their own experiences within community of learners to then establish these types of communities within their classroom.